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Pyramids Plane Rides – The Amazing Tourist Spots in Egypt

There is perhaps no country that perfectly embodies the wonder and mystique of the Ancient world like Egypt does. Many people dream about going there for a variety of valid reasons. And if you are one of these people, it is very easy to understand why. Hollywood has used Egypt as a setting to build romance, fantasy, mystery and historically situated drama in its movies, to great effect. Who can forget the magic of all those Mummy movies?

But more than the picture Western cinema has painted of it, Egypt is truly a treasure of great historical, cultural and religious significance. And because of this fact, where better to spend your next vacation in this land of Eastern allure? If you do decide to make Egypt the site of your next vacation, then it is imperative that you visit the following to make your trip to the country a successful, well rounded one:

*The Nile: Not only is it the longest river in the world but it also has provided the lifeblood of one of the largest and grandest civilizations this world has ever seen. It has been a witness to about 5000 years of human civilization and is bound to witness a lot more. It is perhaps also the most popular river in the world, because of its biblical significance.

*The Pyramids of Giza and The Sphinx: These attractions are usually synonymous with the word ‘Egypt’. These structures have been around for about 4000 years and we are still beginning to unlock the vast secrets they hold. In addition to that they are probably the most visited sites in the whole of Egypt, for good reason.

*The Valley of the Kings: For a really royal time in the land of shifting sands, a journey to the valley of the kings is truly called for. As its name suggests, this is where the great kings of Egypt are buried. For an unbiased trip gender wise and a cool experience in itself, why not visit the Valley of the Queens as well?

Egyptian Cotton in Luxury Bedding

Grown along the Nile River, Egyptian cotton is a luxurious cotton that is often a stable in luxury bedding. Used to make products which are soft, durable, and in general superior to most other materials on the market, this cotton is considered the best materials in luxury bedding.

Other products are made from cotton as well, such as cloth diapers, bathrobes, tablecloths, shirts, tents, stuffed animals, towels, and chef’s coats. The best of the best can be identified by their assertion of containing Egyptian cotton. But what is so great about this particular cotton? Why is it considered the best for luxury bedding, as well as so many other things?

Shocking as it may be, Egyptian cotton comes from Egypt. The Nile River Valley, with it’s unusually humid climate and extremely rich soil creates excellent conditions for growing long cotton fibers. These fibers, otherwise known as staples, are considered ELS, which means extra-long staple cotton. Ranging anywhere from one and a half inches to just over two inches, Egyptian cotton is definitely longer than most. Inferior cotton fibers can be as short as half this length. This long staple length enables Egyptian cotton to be spun into very fine yarns that are not only strong and durable, but are also extremely soft, a must when making luxury bedding.

This cotton is also unusually absorbent. For this reason, many people buy luxury bedding to use instead of paper towels.

Not really.

The ability to absorb such large amounts of liquid actually allows the cotton to absorb large amounts of the dyes that make luxury bedding so very vibrant. The color also lasts longer than the color in most other, lesser cotton products. Other uses for this increased absorbency include bathrobes and bath towels that are both colorful and effective.

So why can’t this cotton just be grown elsewhere in the world? Surely there are similar climate conditions in other areas, right? Well, it kind of can, and is. Although true Egyptian cotton comes from Egypt and Egypt alone, it’s mostly just a trademarked name. The logo of a dark triangle, symbolizing the Egyptian pyramids, with a white cotton plant inside will tell you that the product is true, 100% Egyptian cotton. As cotton is one of Egypt’s best, most profitable markets, they are very eager to hold onto this great reputation.

There also, however, an American version of Egyptian cotton. Known as Pima cotton, from the Pima Indian Reservation, this cotton is in many ways identical. The debate is ongoing as to which cotton is actually superior.

Top 10 Places to Visit in Egypt

Egypt is the most mysterious place on earth, The taste of Ancient Egyptian Mysticism still lingers in the air, This ancient atmosphere really does give you the feeling that secrets are yet to be revealed. Maybe you could be lucky to reveal some secrets yourself, here’s where to find them:

1- Pyramids of Giza & Sphinx These pyramids of kings Khufu, Kafhre, and Menkaura, are the greatest tombs on earth in means of size and structure, these perfectly shaped structures leave anybody seeing them with the mysterious questions of how they were built. As for the Sphinx, the saying “The riddle of the Sphinx” is full of meaning because archaeologists until this day still argue about its purpose and origin.

2- Abu Simbil Ramsis II had these two temples built in order to give himself and his wife Nevertari mortality, It is said that these two temples are of the most beautiful in Egypt and the world, What is also extraordinary is that these temples were relocated in order to avoid the floods in the late years of the 20th century.

3- Cairo, The capital of culture Cairo isn’t the place you would want to miss, if you really want to dive in Egyptian culture Cairo is the place to go, full of luxurious bazaars and great restaurants makes it your chance to grab a bite from Egypt.

4- Al Azhar Gardens As one of the most beautiful parks in the world. Al Azhar Gardens remains a landmark in Cairo, where you can catch a panoramic view of the old city, and it’s spectacular minarets.

5- Temples of Karnak This is where the ancient Egyptians worshipped their gods, This temple holds a monument of almost every single god in the Theban religion.

6- The Nile River Who would be willing to miss the famous Nile Cruise? Yes that’s right, Nobody. It is the reason why all the other wonders are present, the legendary river has been the vein of life in Egypt for thousands of years, and it is said that the Nile river will be the last water source to dry out on earth, what else could be magic?

7- Valley of the Kings The most sacred place of the Pharaohs, this is where the most esteemed kings were buried , present there are many mummies and lots of un-revealed treasures, in fact the most famous mummy was found there “Tutankhamun”.

8- The Egyptian Museum After visiting where the treasures were found, you sure would want to see what was found, if that’s the case then the Egyptian Museum is the place to go.

9- Siwa Oasis If Alexander the great liked this place, Why wouldn’t you? Egypt is not all about monuments and Pharaohs, this place is one where you could loosen up a bit and take a swim in the cool waters in the middle of the desert.

10- Hurgada & Sharm El-Sheikh Two world ranked resorts also well known for the great coral reefs and scuba diving sports, Here you can swim in the spectacular waters of the red sea, or dance your hips of at the famous bars and discos.

Thousands of Egyptian Women Marched Around Downtown Cairo, to Denounce the Surge of Violence Against Female Protesters.
Video Rating: 5 / 5

Holiday Guide to Egypt

Egypt lies at the North Eastern tip of Africa, bordering Sudan to the south, Libya to the west and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean sea and the eastern coast borders the Red sea. Egypt has only two real seasons, a hot summer lasting from May to October, and a mild winter from November to April. The only real difference between the seasons are variations in the daytime temperatures which average between 27 and 32 degrees Centigrade in the summer, and 12 to 21 degrees Centigrade in the winter. The inland desert areas however do vary more, especially in summer, where they can reach as high as 40 degrees in the day time and drop as low as 7 degrees at night. Even though Egypt is about four times the size of the UK, its population centres are more concentrated than ours as most of the population is concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta which means that about 99% of the population only uses about 5.5% of the total land area.

Egypt is very famous for it’s ancient civilization, and it has some of the worlds most famous monuments including the Great Sphinx, and the Pyramids at Giza. At Luxor, a major city in the south of Egypt, you can find the Karnak Temple, and on the west bank of the Nile is the Valley of the Kings – a valley where, for around five hundred years from the 16th to 11th century BC tombs for the kings and nobles of the time where constructed. Luxor is sited on the ancient Theban city which was the capital of Waset the fourth upper Egyptian nome. It was capital of Egypt during part of the 11th dynasty, and most of the 18th dynasty as well. This area has been the focus for much archaeological exploration and this is where you will find the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Cairo is Egypt’s capital city and it’s the largest city in Africa and has long been renowned as a centre of culture and commerce. Cairo has a unique cityscape with ancient mosques and modern buildings sited side by side, and traveling through Cairo can be like traveling through time as you view all the different buildings from the hanging church which is Cairo’s most famous Coptic church and was built in the third century AD, the Cairo Tower and the Mosque of Mohamid Ali built in the early nineteenth century within the Cairo citadel. The name more informally used by most Egyptians for Cairo is ‘Masr’ from the original name of Egypts first Arab capital fustat meaning ‘City of Tents’. The Nile valley in Egypt shows evidence of human habitation since the Paleolithic era and you can see this evidence in the form of artefacts and rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the oases you come across in the surrounding desert.

Egypt even has it’s fair share of modern resorts these are situated for the most part on the Red sea Riviera. Here you can enjoy the unbelievably clear blue waters and coral reefs that are teeming with marine life. For anyone interested, there are spectacular opportunities for snorkeling and scuba diving in this region.

Egyptian Decor – An Ancient Thought For the Modern World

Although the times of the great Pharaohs have long disappeared into the golden sand of desert, the Solar deities and other ancient Egyptian symbols keep arousing our imagination. We rarely recognize the true influence Egyptian art has had on the development of modern art.

Colours that Calm Your Nerves

Ever since Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun, we have experienced a revival of ancient traditions. More and more people turn to the Pharaohs for guidance in developing their home decor. The main reason for Egypt maintaining its popularity is probably the soothing colour scheme that prevails throughout many different forms of art. It is mainly sand, ochre, yellow, turquoise and the earthy palette to balance out the bright tones. Adapt this colour scheme for your home decor and you’ll be surprised. It is fit for creative people and can be really helpful for those who suffer from excess stress.

The calm palette of this type of interior means that you can enjoy more freedom in choosing home decor items. You can refresh the room with golden or red statues or design elements, be bolder with your choice of lighting elements. As this is only a revival and you don’t have to comply with canonical boundaries, like the ancient artists, you can always add some kitsch to your interior.

The Unique Form of Art

Many of the other ancient arts, and indeed the modern art too, are often influenced by other countries and foreign ideas. In this perspective art of Egypt is totally unique. Since it reached its heyday on about 3000 B.C.E., Egyptian art has barely changed and remained conservative, devoid of any outside influence.

Nowadays many people have adopted the distinctive technique of ancient painting. For example, you can see derived elements in Graffiti art and contemporary decor.

Where to Start

The best inspiration for a truly impressive Egyptian décor can be the ancient Egyptian symbols and temple paintings. As this form of art is so quirky and positive, you can just leaf through a book or visit a museum and pick up many great ideas for your home interior.

The best possible advice is not to try turning your room into a temple. Too many figures painted on the walls and too many eyes looking down can make you feel claustrophobic. Try to simplify everything you see because you have to remember that contemporary living offers much less space than the ancient temples.

Many people will find that with the traditional earthy colour scheme they can achieve a much better effect than using intensive colours.

Egyptian Cat Tattoos

Egyptian cat tattoos have a long history and can be found throughout history for thousands of years. In this article, I’m going to cover some of the historical significance of Egyptian cat tattoos and also provide information you need in order to help you choose the right Egyptian cacti to free you.

Over 5000 years ago, the Egyptians began to worship cats as powerful “totem animals”, or spiritual protectors. Over time, they began to represent many different aspects of life for the ancient Egyptians. The cat was a symbol of the feminine principle, as well as fertility and motherhood. Also, they consider that the cat was a powerful symbol for the moon.

In the Book Of The Dead, cats are mentioned as a protector against evil gods and spirits. Following this, you often find statues of cats wearing jewellry, or even mummified cats buried in tombs alongside their owners.

So revered was the cats in ancient Egypt that the exporting of cats outside the country was strictly forbidden, and killing a cat would result in an instant death penalty.

It is arguable that the Egyptians took this too far. During a war with the Persians, the Persians kidnapped and hostage thousands of cats, demanding immediate surrender in return the lives of the kitties. Rather than tempt punishment from the gods, the Egyptians immediately capitulated and surrendered their lands to the Persians.

After thousands of years of unending adoration, the fortune of the cat changed in 400 BC, when the population was forbidden from worshipping cats. Since then, cats returned to their status as domesticated animals in Egypt.

However, the air of mystique and spirituality has never left the cat and even today, cats are considered mystical, magical animals.

An Egyptian cat tattoo is a great way of showing your individuality, as well as letting the world know that you have a spiritual mystical side. They also look very exotic, and while they are very traditional they also have a real new-age luck to them.

Because this is not a very highly common design, you should spend some time looking around in the large databases of tattoo designs to choose one you like before you go to the tattoo parlour. Otherwise, you’ll have a very limited selection to choose from when you go there.

Check out the link below to see which side I recommend you visit.

Netanyahu to visit US as nations align over Iran threat Watch More – www.youtube.com For download and more information – www.journeyman.tv Public outrage over the Port Said massacre is boiling on the streets of Cairo. These strong, exclusive pictures, shot yesterday, follow protesters battling the regime they feel have hijacked their revolution. Rocks hail down on the military vehicles, each carrying a soldier firing canisters of tear-gas. Plumes of smoke erupt everywhere. “We don’t want this to end ugly!”, one man shouts, as some protesters try to negotiate a ceasefire. The Muslim Brotherhood tries to placate the unbridled anger of the young. But it doesn’t last long. The angry youths charge the ceasefire line. “Hey military, why are you selling us out?” The protests are not endorsed by any of the major Egyptian parties. The massive football death toll has rekindled frustration at the slow transition to democracy. Rightly or wrongly the football massacre is widely believed to have been punishment for Cairo’s football supporters abandoning the old regime that always supported them. “They are the dogs of Mubarak. They are all dogs.” February 2012
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Egyptian Canopic Jars – Storing Mummy Parts With Style

Most people think about mummies and the process of making mummies whenever they hear the words Ancient Egypt. However, not many are aware that Egyptian canopic jars were vital in the process and rituals linked with making mummies. So what are canopic jars and what were their roles in the Ancient Egyptian ritual for the dead? Well, during the mummification ritual, the viscera or the major organs found in the middle part of the human body were removed from the deceased. And such organs were stored in wide-necked cylindrical containers called canopic jars.

It is important to note that the heart was one organ that was not placed in Egyptian canopic jars. The heart was left inside the mummified body as Ancient Egyptians believed that it contained the spirit and senses of the departed and that it would be required when the dead faced Judgment Day in the Underworld. The only organs that were placed in canopic jars include the lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines.

Four Egyptian canopic jars were needed during a mummification process because the four aforementioned organs had to be stored individually. These funerary jars were ornately decorated. However, the decorations and the materials used to make the jar usually varied, depending on the status and wealth of the deceased. Jars could be made from stone, calcite or alabaster, wood, pottery, bronze, or even gold for the very wealthy and powerful.

What makes Egyptian canopic jars interesting, even today, are the lid stoppers. If you see an Egyptian funerary jar, you will surely wonder why it has a lid stopper that is designed after the head of an animal or man. As mentioned earlier, four jars were needed to store each visceral organ. You will know what organ is inside the jar by looking at its lid stopper’s decoration or sculpture. According to the belief of Ancient Egyptians, certain gods protect each organ. The jar that contains the liver has a painting or sculpture of a man’s head because the god Imsety, protector of the liver, is depicted with a man’s head. The jar containing the stomach contains jackal decorations in honor of Duamutef, while the jar storing the intestines has a head of a falcon to represent the god Qebehseneuf. Since the god Hapi is the protector of the lungs, the canopic jar with a representation of a baboon’s head on its lid contains the lungs.

Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on the Development of Physics & Technology

Md. Wasim Aktar

Deptt. of Agril. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

The Muslim scientists studied deeply the fundamental questions of physics. For instance Ibn Sina made a profound study of such phenomena as force, motion, light, heat, vacuum, etc. A great progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics. Useful work was done in the field of mechanics on the wheel, axle, lever, pulley, inclined plane, windmill, water-wheel, toothed wheel, etc. The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, named Kitab Mizan al-Hikmah (Book of the balance of wisdom) which is the most remarkable medieval work on these subjects. It gives a theory of the force of the attraction of the earth (gravity), according to which the universal force is directed towards the centre of the universe, which was supposed at that time to be the centre of the earth. It includes the tables of specific gravity of many liquids and solids (based on the work of al-Biruni), and a history of the subject; the gravity of air; observations on capillarity; the use of aerometer for the measurement of densities and the appreciation of the temperature of liquids; the theory of lever; the application of balance to leveling and to the measurement of time. The analysis and extracts of this book have been published in Arabic and English. (1)

In another book on balance al-Khazini stresses the need to remove, as far as possible, the influences of temperature variation during weighing. When al-Khazini’s other studies are considered, he seems to be a precursor of Galileo.

Al-Khazini’s full name was Abu’l Fath ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Mansur al-Khazini (or al-Khazin). He flourished about 1115—1121. He was a Greek (Rumi) slave. His master ‘Ali al-Khazin àl-Marwazi arranged for his good scientific and philosophical education in Marw. Al-Khäzin Compiled the astronomical tables called al-Zij al-Mu’tabar al-Sinjari (The esteemed Sinjaric Tables) which were named after Sinjar Ibn Malikshah Ibn Alp Arsalãn, governor and later Sultan of Khurasän (1097—98 to 1157—58). They give the position of the stars for the year 1115—1116.

Before al-Khazini, Umar al-Khayyam did the greatest work on the balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi contributed to the theory of the balance. Banü Müsä (the sons of Musä), who flourished during the reign of the Caliph al-Ma’mun, wrote many mechanical works. An important work on the balance called Farastün’ or ‘Qarastun is ascribed to them. Al-Räzi (d. 923—24) made investigations on specific gravity by using the hydrostatic balance. This balance was called al-Mizan al-Tabi’i (the physical balance). (2)

Muhammad Ibn ‘Ali Ibn Rustam al-Khurasani was a famous constructor of clocks and, therefore, he was called al-Sa’ati (the clock maker). Between 1146 and 1169, he constructed a clock placed in the Bab Jairün. (often called ‘Bab al-Sa’ah, the door of the clock). Al-Sa’äti remained in charge of his clock until his death in 1184—85. (3)

Another Muslim mechanician of the 13th century was Abu’l-Isa Ismã’il Ibn Razzãz (the son of rice merchant) Badi’al-Zamàn al-Jazari. He was patronized from 577—578 to 601—602 A.H. 1181—1182 to 1205—1206 A.C.,by the Urtuqid rulers of Diyar Bakr, a district of al-Jazirah. He wrote a treatise on the knowledge of the geometrical mechanical contrivances entitled Kitab fi Ma’rifat al-Hiyal al-Handsiyyah, which was dedicated to the Urtuqid Nasir al-Din Mahmüd (ruled from 1200 to 1222). It deals mainly with hydraulic apparatus (elepsydras, fountains, etc.). This important work is interesting from the technical point of view, and represents the best Arabic work on applied mechanics. It is divided into six parts. The first part which deals with the various types of the elepsydras indicating either equal or temporal hours is the most important. Muslims divided the day into twenty-four equal hours. But they adopted another type of division. They divided the day and night each into twelve hours of varying length according to the season. Such type of hours were also used by the Christians in Europe e.g., Italy, until the middle of the 18th century.

The book was translated into German, and commentaries on it were also written. (4)

Al-Sä’ãti’s son Ridwän repaired and improved the clock, and also wrote a book to describe its construction and use. This book is an important source of the study of early Muslim clocks. Ridwan was a mechanician, physician and poet, and had knowledge of literature and music. He played the flute. Originally he belonged to Khurasan. He was appointed as wazir by the Ayyubi prince al-Faiz Ibrahim and his brother al-Mu’azzam Isã. Ridwan also wrote a supplement to Ibn Sinà’s treatise on grapes, and a commentary on his Qanün (Canon). (5)

Qaisar Ibn Abu‘l-Qasim, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 A.C.) made a celestial globe. He probably made improvements on the water-wheels or water-mills. Such improved types of water-wheels are still seen on the Orontes, and are among the glories of Hama. He constructed these water-wheels (naura) for al-Muzzaffar al-Taqi al-Din Mahmud, the ruler of Hama from 1229 to 1244 A.C. (6)

The philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi refuted the existence of a vacuum. He wrote a remarkable essay on the elasticity of the air. It is an original piece of research. (7)

The Muslim scientists took interest in the determination of the specific gravity of various substances. Sanad Ibn ‘Ali, a scientist of the ninth century made investigations on specific gravity. Al-Biruni determined the specific gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sinã and al-Rãzi also made research on this subject.

Ibn Yunus (d. 1009 A.C.) applied the pendulum to the measurement of time. Al-Biruni devised a time machine based on the Roman calendar. He constructed it for use in the mosque of Ghazna. But the Imam of the mosque rejected it saying that it was based on a non-Muslim work. At this Al-Biruni was very much annoyed. He said that the, determination of time is a purely secular matter. It is, therefore, of little value whether it is based on a Muslim calendar or a non-Muslim one. Only convenience should be taken into consideration.

Al-Biruni made reference to a certain kind of wells which are obtained by boring the earth to that level of water which is submitted to the hydrostatic pressure in which case due to the pressure water is driven upward as in the natural springs. He correctly explains the action of such wells by the principle of communicating vessels. (8)

The Muslims developed the techniques of bathing. They constructed the hot, steam bath called Hammäm (from the Arabic root Hamm meaning to heat). When the European Crusaders came to the East and experienced the comforts of these baths, they introduced them into their own countries.

The Muslims were the first to apply the directive property of the magnetic needle to the determination of the direction of their journey while traveling on sea. The Chinese were the first to discover this property. The maritime trade between the Muslims gave much importance to the southern end of the needle than the northern one as it is done these days. This was probably because in some places like Syria and Asia Minor the southern end pointed roughly towards Makkah. Thus this end of the needle gave the general direction of the Qiblah. In the West the compass was first of all used by the Italian sailors. Some Muslims have referred to the compass in their writings. For instance, Bailak al-Qabajaqi in his book entitled Kanz al-Ahjär described the use of a floating compass witnessed by him in l242—43. (9)

‘The Muslims were also the first to invent guns and cannons and use explosive material in them. The purpose of this invention was to throw bullets at the enemy from a long distance. The Chinese used sodium nitrate only. But the penetrating power of explosives was discovered and made use of only by Muslims. The historians generally write that first of all guns were used in the war of Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims it is revealed that guns had been used a long time ago. In one of these writings there is a story that some ruler named Ya’qüb besieged in 602 A.H. (1205 A.C.) an African town Mehdra which was under the control of his chief rebel, and attacked the walls with the help of sounding guns and machines. From every machine there came out a number of showers of big stones and fire balls.

The statement given by Ibn Khaldün in his ‘History of Berbers’ also proves the use of the guns at the time of war. He writes “Abu Yusuf, the Sultan of Morocco besieged in 672 A.H. (1273 A.C.) the city of Sijilmasa. He installed the instruments for besiege in front of the city. These instruments consisted of Manjneeq, Urawe and Handam with which the bits of iron were thrown. These bits were filled in the box of Handam, and the explosives kept behind them were set on fire. Its effect was strange and its results could be called an act of Allah. One day with the help of a stone thrown by Manjneeq, part of the wall fell, and from there the attack was made on the city. (10)

The Muslims developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haitham (Latin Alhazen) made a remarkable contribution towards this science. Indeed modern optics began with him. Before Ibn al-Haitham it was generally thought by the Greek, Roman and Muslim scientists that rays are emitted from the eyes towards the objects seen. Plato suggested that there was another set of rays which emitted from the object seen. Alexandrians believed that the vision lies in the lens of the eye. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni also believed that the ray went from the object to the eye. Aristotle’s ideas were very near to modern conception. The atomists put forward an atomical theory. Hunain Ibn Ishãq in his work entitled “Questions on the eye’ put forward a theory which was somewhat like that of Plato. In his opinion the lens was the central organ of vision. Both the visual force coming from the brain and the image of the object coming from without were received in the lens. Al-Razi, too, in his monograph on the nature of vision showed that the eyes do not radiate light. (11)

Ibn al-Haitham changed the traditional view by putting forward the theory that the objects are seen by rays passing from them towards the eye and not by the opposite process. Most of his successors did not agree with his view, but Al-Birüni and Ibn Sina independently and fully agreed with him. Ibn al-Haitham solved a number of optical, problems on the basis of the mathematical knowledge of his day.

Ibn al-Haitham dealt with such a medley of topics as the structure of the eye, optical illusion, perspective, binocular vision, vision of outlines, shadows and colours, the ancient catoptrics and dioptrics with new developments, camera obscura, Alhazen’s problem, mirages, comets, the Milky Way, rainbows, halos, etc.

Ibn al-Haitham conducted research catoptrics which contains the problem known Alhazen’s problem. It is as follows:-

‘From two points in the plane of a circle to draw lines meeting at a point of the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point’. This leads, to an equation, of the fourth degree. Ibn al-Haitham solved it by the help of an hyperbola intersecting a circle. He also solved the so-called al-Mahani’s cubic equation.

Ibn al-Haitham showed a marked progress in experimental techniques. He made research on spherical and parabolic mirrors; spherical aberration and dioptrics. He noticed that the ratio between the angles of incidence and reflection does not remain constant. He described the magnifying power of a lens and studied atmospheric refraction. He stated that the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19° below the horizon, and tried to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He gave a better description of the eye and vision. He tried to explain, binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in the size of the sun and the moon near the horizon. He gave the first mathematical treatment of the ‘camera obscura’.

Thus he deals with the problems which now come under at least seven subjects including anatomy, physiology, psychology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and meteorology.

The full name of Ibn al-Haitham is Abu ‘Ali Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra and was born in 354 A.H. (965 A.C.). He migrated to Egypt where he lived till his death. He was a noble person and a genius who had the knowledge of many sciences. He was the greatest mathematician of his age and one of the greatest opticians in history. He was also well versed in medicine and Arabic language. When the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who was very fond of philosophy, heard about Ibn al-Haitham, he had a great desire to see him. Al-Häkim was informed that Ibn al-Haitham had disclosed that if he had been in Egypt, he might have done something in connection with the river Nile, so that it would become beneficial in every case, whether the level of water was high or low. According to Ibn al-Haitham, the river water fell from a high place lying in the territory of Egypt. Hearing this report Al-Hakim became more fond of meeting Ibn al-Haitham .Al-Hãkim sent a great amount of money to him, and persuaded him to come to his court. Ibn al-Haitham left for Egypt. When he reached near Cairo al-Hakim went to receive him. They met in a village near Bàb al-Qahirah (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim honored him, provided him with all the facilities, and asked him to fulfill his promise regarding the river Nile. A group of workers was provided to help him in executing his plan. When Ibn al-Haitham made the survey of the site and came to a place called ‘Janadil’ (now called Shaläl), which lies near Aswan on an elevated ground, he realized the difficulties involved. Finding himself unable to fulfill his promise, he became very ashamed, Now he feared al-Hàkim and to get rid of him he acted as a mad man, and remained in the condition of madness until the death of al-Hãkim. Then he came to his senses and settled in Qubbah near the gate of Jami’ah al-Azhar, and engaged himself in writing books. He died in 1038.

Ibn al-Haitham is the author of many works. He summarized Aristotle’s works, and wrote commentaries on them. He also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on mathematics and physics are 15 and on metaphysics and physics are 44 in number. His books include the one on plants and one on the properties of simple and Compound drugs. (12)

His kitab al-Manazir (the optical thesaurus), is one of the leading classics which influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. The Latin, Muslim and Hebrew writers such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, Witelo, Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirãzi, Levi Ben Gerson based their works on this great book.

Ibn Sinã made a deep study of light. He observed that if light is emitted due to the ejection of some sort of particles by the luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. (13) Al-Biruni noticed that the speed of light is immensely greater than that of the sound. (14)

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi wrote two books on Optics. One of them, is entitled Al-Mabahith fi In‘ikãs al-Shu‘a‘at wa In‘itafiha (Research on the reflection and refraction of rays), contains a proof of the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection.

The other is entitled ‘Tahrir kitab al-Manãzir. In the preface the author remarks that one perceive objects because of the light rays emanating from them, but that everything happens as if the rays emanated from our eyes. (15)

Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, (d. 1311) who was one of the greatest scientist of all times presented his views on Optics in his astronomical works. In one of such works, entitled ‘Nihãyat al-Idrãk fi Dirãyat al-Aflak(Highest understanding of the knowledge of the Spheres); he discusses questions of geometrical optics, the nature of vision, and finally the rainbow. He was the first to give a satisfactory account of the rainbow. His explanation of the rainbow is based on his study of the passage of a ray of light through a transparent sphere (drop of water). He discovered that the rainbow is formed when the rays are refracted twice and reflected once (or tunice in the case of the secondary rainbow) in the humid atmosphere. (16)

Another, important physicist and mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abu’l- Hasan al-Farisi. He wrote a book entitled ‘Tanqih al-Manazir (Correction of optics) which is an elaborate and original commentary on Ibn al-Haitham’s Kitäb al-Manãzir (the book of optics). It covers not only physical and physiological optics, but also meteorology, perspective and many other subjects. It includes remarks on serial perspective, colour effects, etc.

Kamal al-Din suggested the use, of hyperboloidal lenses in order to avoid spherical aberration. He gave an account of the refraction of light. According to George Sarton, this account implies the following facts; the speed of light is finite but very great; the speed of light in different media is inversely proportional to the optical density (not the same as the material density). The second of these facts seems to be an adumbration of the wave theory of light as against the corpuscular theory.

Kamãl al-Din performed a number of experiments on camera obscura and improved its use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. He showed that the images obtained on a screen in a dark room by means, of the rays of light passing through a narrow hole, are independent of the shape of the ho1e, and that the smaller the hole, the sharper the images. It was also proved that the images of many objects are formed separately on the screen, but the images and the directions were reversed. With the help of the camera he observed eclipses and the movements of the clouds and birds. (17)

Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the lancer) Najm al- Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) wrote on military subjects. He flourished in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of war, (1) Kitab al-Furusiyah wa’l Munasab al-Harbiyah (Horsemanship and war stratagems), (2) Nihayat al-Su’ul wa’l ‘Umniya fi Ta’allum al-A’mal al-Furusiyah.

The first treatise deals with the military matters such as the military operation, means of using lances, bows, siege engines, and the method of fighting at sea and the communication of fire etc. It contains various pyrotechnic recipes; Al-Hasan considered saltpeter the fundamental substance of pyrotechnics. He explained the methods of preparing and purifying it by means of potash and of repeated crystallizations.

In the opinion of George Sarton, that is more important than it may seem, for the impurities of saltpeter are hygroscopic, and thus tend to destroy its value. To discover saltpeter and its uses was one thing, to purify it was another. (18)

The Muslims improved the art of shipbuilding, taught Mediterranean seamen to construct lighter sailing-ships or caravels (garaf), to caulk their boats with tar still known in Romance languages by the Arabic name of gatran (Fr goudron, It. caltrame)—to handle sails and cables (Ar. habl). (19)

REFERENCES :-

1. A1-Khazini, ‘Abd al-Rahmän, ‘Mizan al-Hikmah, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 A.H. pp. 1—170.

2. Al-Qifti, ‘Ali Ibn Yüsuf, Tarikh al-Hukama, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271.

3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, Vol. I, p. 632.

4. Ibid., p. 631.

5. Ibid., 632.

6. Ibid., vol. II, Part II, p. 623.

7. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 277.

8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707.

9. Ibid., Vol. II, Part I, p. 24.

10. Balgirami, ‘Ali, Tamaddun-e-Arab, (Urdu translation of a French work by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441.

11. Ibid., vol I, p. 609.

12. Ibid., p. 721.

13 Isma’il Basha al-Baghdadi, Hadiyyah al-Arifin, Istanbul, 1951, Vol. II, p. 66.

14. Sarton, op.cit., p. 707.

15. Ibid., p. 709-713.

16. Ibid. vol. II, Part, II, p. 1009.

17. Ibid.,p. 1018.

18. Ibid., Vol III, part I p. 707. Al-Fárisi, Kamál al-Din, Tãnqih al-Manazir, Hyderabad Decean, India.

19. Sarton op. cit., Vol. II, Part II, p. 1039.

20. Briffault, Dr. Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980, p. 205.

The Special Places to visit on an Egyptian Holiday

You will be familiar with the most famous of places that everyone will want to visit when in Egypt which are the Pyramids of Giza, the famous pyramids created over 4,000 years ago attracts millions of visitors each year. Cairo is another popular place to visit; the bustling city offers the tourist a modern city with traders looking to sell you the local goods. However you can also discover a city rich in history in the Islamic region of Cairo.

If you are planning a holiday to Egypt then there are less known but impressive places to visit including Dakhla Oasis.

The oasis of Dakhla houses two small towns, Al-Qasr and Mut, with Mut being the larger of the two as it has more hotels for visitors to stay. Near Al Qasr you will find 600 hot springs as well as an Ethnographic museum. For those who love to learn about the history there are many tour guides who will take you through the narrow alleyways, mosques and houses and show you forges that are still being used to this day.

The small town of Al-Qasr is home to around 700 inhabitants and can be found of the limestone cliffs and on the edge of the oasis. It has a great presence as it hasn’t changed much from medieval times. Waiting to be found are many lintels which beautifully decorate the old houses. Some of these date back to the Ottoman and Mamluk era of around 900 AD.

The mosque are also very old, it is a three-story, 21 metre high building that is made from mud and brick with wooden lintels decorating the building with local inscriptions at the entrance. You can see more old local sites such as an old corn mill and a pottery factory. Al-Qasr offers you the chance to see how primitive some towns are in Egypt and are well worth visiting in addition to the famous pyramids on an Egypt holiday.

Egypt is hot all year round so if extreme heat isn’t for you then you can have an Egyptian experience later in the year, October-December time may suit you better and as it is out of the peak season you should be able to find good value Egypt holidays that suit your budget.

Jason Becker – Eleven Blue Egyptians studio verson with some pictures.
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Egyptian Prisons’ escapees rush for Jihad against Israel

 

 

The commander of Central Sector of Hamas at Gaza strip Ayman Nofal was one among them and had been the master mind of Rocket launches that fell on Beersheba in Israel.

Other Operatives belonging to the Islamic Jihad with fugitives have quickly embarked upon planting Improvised Explosive devices at the Gaza Strip border posts with Israel. Israeli Counter Offensive The Israeli Defence Forces at once returned the Rocket attacks and bombing sprees by striking the bases of these operatives. At least one Palestinian belonging to the Islamic Jihad was killed along with three others wounded who belonged to the Al Qassam Brigade of the of the Hamas according to the Jerusalem Battalion website of the Islamic Jihad.

Between 23rd February to26th, IDF carried out air strikes that destroyed a training camp, ammo dump, tunnels weapon manufacturing sites. At Gaza City itself a base at Netzarim was snuffed out. Muslim Brotherhood alliance with Hamas The Hamas has increased its sphere of influence in the after math of Egyptian Uprising. The Brotherhood already had been fronting Hamas’ objectives since the foiled attempt at a Gaza Flotilla to break through the naval cordon.

Israeli Navy had intercepted huge gun smuggling that ship in rockets and arsenals that are brought in from the Iranian sponsors and black market. Judea and Samaria erupts Unrest in the Arab world had been quickly sought to be turned around the Palestinian issue. At Judea and Samaria the Brotherhood escapees fomented huge demonstrations that ended up with head on collision with Israeli security forces. Bilain and Ni Lin strongholds of Islamic Jihad were made a pilgrimage for Protesters from abroad who converged for the show.

This was even as Rocket attacks were hiked up targeting civilian centres inside Israel to draw out a response from Israeli defence forces.

 

Now all that you read above was posted at my TV blog some days before the murder of a Rabbi’s family in the settlements.

 

Not surprsingly, the settlement sits inside Samaria.

 

Though Palestininas authorities distanced themselves from that quite macabre slaughter, when both parents were killed even as two surviving kids watched, what shocked the observers was the kniving of a baby in the cradle and a 11 year old as well.

Netanyahu during his condolence visit quipped to the inconsolable family-

“They kill.We build.We will build”

Next day Isreal anounced the expansion of the Settlements.

What we had posted then was a probe whether the Prison escapees had a hand in that slaying.

Reason? Inspite of all the bad blood between Palestinians and Jews, the barbarity displayed points to such long incacerated convicts and felons who alone would be capable of such deeds.

Ofcourse the hard boiled ideolgue among ranks of Radicals would agree to pursue and slay the last Jew hiding behind the stone that would cry to give his hide away, here is the convergence of both such elements- when most dreaded elements among the ranks of the Islamic Jihad organisation walked scot free in droves in a simultaneous jail break, that resulted in many Prison guards’ death by gunfire- indicating involvement of both the Islamic Jihad and Hamas operatives assisting the Prison break.

Now comes after a long spell of relative immunity from Terror strikes, the bus station bombing on the 24rth March at Jerusalem that killed a woman and seriously injured 3 others including children.

In the back drop an another round of escalation of Rocket attacks into Israel from Palestinian territory.

 

If anything, this just confirms our saying that the Prison break is a part of a larger islamist grand uprising that is seeking dramatic theatre action in a battle with Israel to galvanise the Arab unrest behind it, in its quest for a Pan Islamic Neo-Kalifate.

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From the ‘Egypt Uncovered’ series: “Deities and Demons”.